Throughout history, trade routes have emerged to serve those pursuing commerce in all its many forms, from the recovery of value from natural resources, to tourism, to manufacturing and agriculture, to migration and exploration. Specialized markets, or niche markets, inevitably develop along trade routes to take advantage of specific conditions and to meet the specific [...]
At the end of the first decade of the 21st century, the American space program is going through particularly turbulent times. Many believe that America has lost its vision and focus, and that we will consequently abdicate our leadership role in space exploration and innovation to other international space faring nations. There are many indicators [...]
There is no doubt that China has become a major space power, with its launch technologies, many satellites in orbit, manned space flight program, and its lunar exploration program. China considers the aerospace industry as “a significant symbol of the nation's strength,” as remarked by President HU Jintao on the 50th Anniversary of Aerospace Industry [...]
Commercial spaceports are launch facilities dedicated to serving the needs of the commercial launch industry. The need to move beyond the restrictions and costs of using government facilities was the key driver in the emergence of the industry, and it came about as a result of the gradual commercialization of space launch starting in the [...]
Most sectors requiring a relatively high upfront investment have started off as public, often military funded projects. A typical example is the development of the commercial aeronautical sector with some similarities but also important differences compared to the space sector. Starting with early flights in 1897 performed by Clement Adler (but kept secret due to [...]
The choices between international cooperation and competition, and finding the right balance between the two, has been a major concern of space diplomats and leaders in Asia, Europe, and North America for much of the last few decades. Debate in policy circles has revolved around questions of cooperation, and whether collective assurance or independence is [...]
Numerous examples of international cooperation among well-established spacefaring states have emerged over the last several decades. Although the prime example may be the International Space Station, other missions are similarly worthy of mention: Cassini-Huygens, Chandrayan 1, Hayabusa, and literally every mission launched by the European Space Agency. As a result of such cooperation our knowledge [...]
Australia occupies an unusual place in the story of human activity in space. Australia’s approach to space has been and remains intensely pragmatic and collaborative, leading to outcomes that have puzzled many observers and commentators over the years. Principles of necessity and sufficiency have been dominant. Grand plans for space exploration and space industry development [...]
Japan and China, two advanced spacefaring nations, are often referred as rivals in space. Successful manned space program in 2003 and ASAT test in 2007 by China were considered as turning points that led Japan to compete against China, and which potentially introduced the idea of a “space race in Asia.” This paper analyzes the [...]
All living species are transitory. Depending upon the definition of “technology” in specific contexts, they either evolve biologically or biotechnologically to meet ever-changing external and internal conditions, or they ultimately become extinct. Even the humankind sentient “essence,” i.e., the whole seemingly being greater than the sum of its parts, is constantly in evolutionary transition. If [...]